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Dysmenorrhea, also known as painful periods, or menstrual cramps, is pain during menstruation.^[1][2] Its usual onset occurs around the time that menstruation begins.^[1] Symptoms typically last less than three days.^[1] The pain is usually in the pelvis or lower abdomen.^[1] Other symptoms may include back pain, diarrhea, or nausea.^[1]

In young women painful periods often occur without an underlying problem.^[3][4] In older women it is more often due to an underlying issues such as uterine fibroids, adenomyosis, or endometriosis.^[3] It is more common among those with heavy periods, irregular periods, whose periods started before twelve years of age, or who have a low body weight.^[1] A pelvic exam in those who are sexually active and ultrasound may be useful to help in diagnosis.^[1] Conditions that should be ruled out include ectopic pregnancy, pelvic inflammatory disease, interstitial cystitis, and chronic pelvic pain.^[1]

Dysmenorrhea occurs less often in those who exercise regularly and those who have children early in life.^[1] Treatment may include the use of a heating pad.^[3] Medications that may help include NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, hormonal birth control, and the IUD with progestogen.^[1][3] Taking vitamin B or magnesium may help.^[2] Evidence for yoga, acupuncture, and massage is insufficient.^[1] Surgery may be useful if certain underlying problems are present.^[2]

Estimates of the percentage of women of reproductive age affected varying from 20 to 90%.^[1][4] It is the most common menstrual disorder.^[2] Typically it starts within a year of the first menstrual period.^[1] When there is no underlying cause often the pain improves with age or following having a child.^[2]

Signs and symptoms

The main symptom of dysmenorrhea is pain concentrated in the lower abdomen or pelvis.^[1] It is also commonly felt in the right or left side of the abdomen. It may radiate to the thighs and lower back.^[1]

Symptoms often co-occurring with menstrual pain include nausea and vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, headache, dizziness, disorientation, hypersensitivity to sound, light, smell and touch, fainting, and fatigue. Symptoms of dysmenorrhea often begin immediately after ovulation and can last until the end of menstruation. This is because dysmenorrhea is often associated with changes in hormonal levels in the body that occur with ovulation. The use of certain types of birth control pills can prevent the symptoms of dysmenorrhea because they stop ovulation from occurring.

Causes

Dysmenorrhea can be classified as either primary or secondary based on the absence or presence of an underlying cause. Primary dysmenorrhea occurs without an associated underlying condition, while secondary dysmenorrhea has a specific underlying cause, typically a condition that affects the uterus or other reproductive organs.^[5]

The most common cause of secondary dysmenorrhea is endometriosis, which can be visually confirmed by laparoscopy in approximately 70% of adolescents with dysmenorrhea.^[6]

Other causes of secondary dysmenorrhea include leiomyoma,^[7]adenomyosis,^[8]ovarian cysts, and pelvic congestion.^[9]

Unequal leg length might hypothetically be one of the contributors, as it may contribute to a tilted pelvis, which may cause lower back pain,^[10] which in turn may be mistaken for menstrual pain, as women with lower back pain experience increased pain during their periods.

Other skeletal abnormalities, such as scoliosis (sometimes caused by spina bifida) might be possible contributors as well.

Mechanism

During a woman's menstrual cycle, the endometrium thickens in preparation for potential pregnancy. After ovulation, if the ovum is not fertilized and there is no pregnancy, the built-up uterine tissue is not needed and thus shed.

Molecular compounds called prostaglandins are released during menstruation, due to the destruction of the endometrial cells, and the resultant release of their contents.^[11] Release of prostaglandins and other inflammatory mediators in the uterus cause the uterus to contract. These substances are thought to be a major factor in primary dysmenorrhea.^[12] When the uterine muscles contract, they constrict the blood supply to the tissue of the endometrium, which, in turn, breaks down and dies. These uterine contractions continue as they squeeze the old, dead endometrial tissue through the cervix and out of the body through the vagina. These contractions, and the resulting temporary oxygen deprivation to nearby tissues, are responsible for the pain or "cramps" experienced during menstruation.

Compared with other women, women with primary dysmenorrhea have increased activity of the uterine muscle with increased contractility and increased frequency of contractions.^[13]

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of dysmenorrhea is usually made simply on a medical history of menstrual pain that interferes with daily activities. However, there is no universally accepted gold standard technique for quantifying the severity of menstrual pains.^[14] Yet, there are quantification models, called menstrual symptometrics, that can be used to estimate the severity of menstrual pains as well as correlate them with pain in other parts of the body, menstrual bleeding and degree of interference with daily activities.^[14]

Further work-up

Once a diagnosis of dysmenorrhea is made, further workup is required to search for any secondary underlying cause of it, in order to be able to treat it specifically and to avoid the aggravation of a perhaps serious underlying cause.

Further work-up includes a specific medical history of symptoms and menstrual cycles and a pelvic exam.^[2] Based on results from these, additional exams and tests may be motivated, such as:

• Laboratory tests^[2]
  


• 
  Gynecologic ultrasonography^[2]
  


• 
  Laparoscopy may be required.^[2]
  

Management

NSAIDs

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are effective in relieving the pain of primary dysmenorrhea.^[15] They can have side effects of nausea, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer, and diarrhea.^[16][15] People who are unable to take the more common NSAIDs may be prescribed a COX-2 inhibitor.^[17]

Hormonal birth control

Use of hormonal birth control may improve symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea.^[18][19] A 2009 systematic review however found limited evidence that the birth control pill, containing low doses or medium doses of oestrogen, reduces pain associated with dysmenorrhea.^[20] In addition, no differences between different birth control pill preparations were found.^[20]

Norplant^[21] and Depo-provera^[22][23] are also effective, since these methods often induce amenorrhea. The intrauterine system (Mirena IUD) may be useful in reducing symptoms.^[24]

Other

A review indicated the effectiveness of transdermal nitroglycerin.^[25]

Alternative medicine

There is insufficient evidence to recommend the use of any herbal or dietary supplements for treating dysmenorrhea, including, melatonin, vitamin E, fennel, dill, chamomile, cinnamon, damask rose, rhubarb, guava, and uzara.^[1][26] Further research is recommended to follow up on weak evidence of benefit for: fenugreek, ginger, valerian, zataria, zinc sulphate, fish oil, and vitamin B1. A 2016 review found that evidence of safety is insufficient for all dietary supplements.^[26]

There is some conflicting evidence in the scientific literature, including:

One review found thiamine and vitamin E to be likely effective.^[27] It found the effects of fish oil and vitamin B12 to be unknown.^[27]

Reviews found tentative evidence that ginger powder may be effective for primary dysmenorrhea.^[28]

Reviews have found promising evidence for Chinese herbal medicine for primary dysmenorrhea, but that the evidence was limited by its poor methodological quality.^[29][30]

Procedures

Acupuncture: A 2016 Cochrane review found that the randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of acupuncture treatments for dysmenorrhea are of low quality and concluded that it is unknown if acupuncture or acupressure is effective for treating symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea.^[31] There are also concerns of bias in study design and in publication, insufficient reporting (few looked at adverse effects), and that they were inconsistent.^[31] There are conflicting reports in the literature, including one review which found that acupressure, topical heat, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, and behavioral interventions are likely effective.^[27] It found the effect of acupuncture and magnets to be unknown.^[27]

A 2007 systematic review found some scientific evidence that behavioral interventions may be effective, but that the results should be viewed with caution due to poor quality of the data.^[32]

Spinal manipulation does not appear to be helpful.^[27] Although claims have been made for chiropractic care, under the theory that treating subluxations in the spine may decrease symptoms,^[33] a 2006 systematic review found that overall no evidence suggests that spinal manipulation is effective for treatment of primary and secondary dysmenorrhea.^[34]

Epidemiology

Dysmenorrhea is estimated to affect approximately 25% of women.^[35] Reports of dysmenorrhea are greatest among individuals in their late teens and 20s, with reports usually declining with age. The prevalence in adolescent females has been reported to be 67.2% by one study^[36] and 90% by another.^[35] It has been stated that there is no significant difference in prevalence or incidence between races.^[35] Yet, a study of Hispanic adolescent females indicated a high prevalence and impact in this group.^[37] Another study indicated that dysmenorrhea was present in 36.4% of participants, and was significantly associated with lower age and lower parity.^[38]Childbearing is said to relieve dysmenorrhea, but this does not always occur. One study indicated that in nulliparous women with primary dysmenorrhea, the severity of menstrual pain decreased significantly after age 40.^[39] A questionnaire concluded that menstrual problems, including dysmenorrhea, were more common in females who had been sexually abused.^[40]

A survey in Norway showed that 14 percent of females between the ages of 20 to 35 experience symptoms so severe that they stay home from school or work.^[41] Among adolescent girls, dysmenorrhea is the leading cause of recurrent short-term school absence.^[42]

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dysmenorrhea.

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  Dysmenorrhea at Curlie